1. Introduction

It has been claimed by the Christian missionaries that according to the Muslim scholars

... the Kufic Script which, according to Qur'an scholars Martin Lings and Yasin Hamid Safadi, did not appear until the late eighth century.

In other words, according to the missionaries, Lings and Safadi say that Kûfic script did not appear until the late eighth century. Therefore, the conclusions drawn by the Christian missionaries suggest that

... both the Samarkand and Topkapi Codices could not have been written earlier than 150 years after the 'Uthmanic Recension was [supposedly] compiled - at the earliest during the late 700's or early 800's since both are written in the Kufic script (Gilchrist 1989:144-147).

In this paper we would examine the claim the origins of Kûfic script in the light of Islamic inscriptions as well as early Qur'ânic manuscripts.

2. The Origins Of Kûfic Script

We begin with the quote of a Muslim, al-Qalqashandî who maintains that Kûfic is said to have been the earliest script from which the others developed, he writes:

The Arabic script [khatt] is the one which is now known as Kûfic. From it evolved all the present pens.^[1]

This is a very profound statement as its findings differ greatly from missionaries' assertions! Though Nabia Abbott's conclusions perhaps may not go so far as to agree ad totum with this conclusion we find that she does say:

...the Muslim tradition that the original Arabic script was Kûfic (that is, Hîran or Anbâran) is one of those statements which, though known to be half wrong, may yet be half right.^[2]

The terms that came to be applied to these scripts by early Arabs themselves could not have the chronological significance that some later Arabs and most Western writers have put to them. For is it the case that the name of a thing (e.g., Kûfic) necessarily indicates its ultimate origin? The fact is that the script which later came to be known as Kûfic has its origin far earlier than the founding of the town of Kûfah.

Imamuddin writes:

The origin of Kûfic or the angular style of Arabic script is traced back to about one hundred years before the foundation of Kûfah (17H / 638CE) to which town it owes its name because of its development there.^[3]

Similarly Moritz writing in Encyclopaedia Of Islam asserts:

Although the script [i.e., Kûfic] itself,.... was known in Mesopotamia at least 100 years before the foundation of Kûfa, we may conjecture that it received its name from the town in which it was first put to official use...^[4]

That is to say, the town was founded in AH 17, and the Kûfic style originated 100 years before that time! This conclusion is agreed upon by other writers too.^[5] Khatibi and Sijelmassi inform us that:

The Arabs usually distinguish four types of pre-Islamic script: al-Hiri (from Hira), al-Anbâri (from Anbâr), al-Maqqi (from Mecca) and al-Madani (from Medina). The famous author of Fihrist, Ibn Nadim (died c. 390/999) was the first to use the word 'kufic', deriving it from the hiri script. However, Kufic script cannot have originated in Kufa, since that city was founded in 17/638, and the Kufic script is known to have existed before that date, but this great intellectual centre did enable calligraphy to be developed and perfected aesthetically from the pre-Islamic scripts.^[6]

What is of note here is that it is the Hîran script which later came to be classified as the Kûfic. Abbott writes:

... Kûfah and Basrah did not start their careers as Muslim cities until the second decade of Islam. But these cities were located closer to Anbâr and Hîrah in Irak, Kûfah being but a few miles south of Hîrah. We have already seen the major role the two earlier cities played in the evolution of Arabic writing, and it is but natural to expect them to have developed a characteristic script to which the newer cities of Kûfah and Basrah fell heir, so that for Kûfic and Basran script one is tempted to substitute Anbâran and Hîran ... our study so far shows that the script of Hîrah must have been the leading script in the 6th century and as such must have influenced all later scripts, including the Makkan - Madinan.^[7]

The city of Kûfah, therefore, inherited and took on the script which was already prevailing in Hîrah. The script, as we have mentioned, which was later to be titled as Kûfic.

What is even more interesting is that the Qur'ânic manuscripts written in Kûfic script are available from 1st century of Hijra onwards at Bait al-Qur'ân, Manama, Bahrain and Maktabat al-Jâmi^c al-Kabîr (Maktabat al-Awqâf), The Great Mosque, San^câ', Yemen.

3. Martin Lings & Yasin Safadi On Kûfic Script

The missionaries have argued that it is the view of both Martin Lings and Yasin Safadi that Kûfic script

did not appear until the late eighth century.

It is difficult to see how this view can be ascribed to Safadi, because he himself, in his work Islamic Calligraphy, details the milestone from the period of the Caliph ^cAbd al-Mâlik (685-705 CE) which he describes as being in the Kûfic script!^[8]

Concerning the Kûfic script, Yasin Safadi says:

The Kufic script, which reached perfection in the second half of the the eighth century, attained a pre-eminence which endured for more than three hundred years ....^[9]

In the chapter "Kufic Calligraphy" Martin Lings says:

The first calligraphic perfection of Islam is to be found in the monumental script which may be said to have reached its fullness in the last half of the second century AH which ended in 815 AD.^[10]

Can we then assume from this, taking into account the previous evidence, that Safadi held the belief that the script first originated at this time? No, rather he is clearly stating that it is here when it reached its 'perfection'. Lings and Safadi again arrived at a similar conclusion for their book in honour of the 1976 Qur'ân exhibition at the British Museum:

Kûfic may be said to have reached its perfection, for Qur'ânic manuscripts, in the second half of the second Islamic century which ended in A.D. 814.^[11]

One wonders how did the missionaries conclude the appearance of Kûfic script in the late eight century when both Lings and Safadi say that the script reached its perfection in the second half of second Islamic century!

The Christian missionaries are found to be not only incorrect in their dating of the origins of the Kûfic script, but also erroneous in their opinion that Kûfic is not a script that we would expect to have been employed in the Hijâz during the Caliphate of ^cUthmân. In respect to Lings and Safadi, the missionaries have simply misread their statements.

To conclude, Abbott thinks that the ^cUthmânic Qur'ânic manuscripts were probably written in Makkan-Madinan scripts.^[12] The manuscript attributed to ^cUthmân, located at al-Hussein mosque in Cairo, is indeed written in Madinan script.

4. Examples Of Kûfic Writings From 1st Century Of Hijra

The Christian missionaries' arbitrary dating of the origins of Kûfic script also contradicts early inscriptions which have been commented upon by both Western and Muslim writers.

1. 31 AH, Tombstone of ^cAbd al-Rahmân Ibn Khair al-Hajrî. This was first published by H. M. El-Hawary who said that it is inscribed in:

   ... carelessly written Cufic script.^[13]

   Nabia Abbott reasserts:

   The earliest Muslim inscription, the tombstone of ^cAbd al-Rahmân Ibn Khair al-Hajarî, dated 31/652... It is certainly not Makkan and can safely be considered as poor Kûfic.^[14]

    

2. Pre-93 AH, the milestone, dated from the time of the Caliph ^cAbd al-Mâlik (reign 685 - 705CE), written in Kûfic script. It reads:

   The highway... ^cAbdullah ^cAbd al-Mâlik, amir of the faithful, Allah's mercy be upon him, this mile is eight miles [from Jerusalem]^[15]

    

3. Pre-93 AH, another milestone, dated from the time of the Caliph ^cAbd al-Mâlik (reign 685 - 705CE), Safadi informs us:

Early ornamental Kûfic on a milestone placed on the Damascus-Jerusalem road by order of the Caliph ^cAbd al-Mâlik (685-705).^[16]

5. Dated Manuscripts & Dating Of The Manuscripts: The Difference

A clear distinction needs to be made between dated (or datable) manuscripts and dating of the manuscripts for proper orientation. A steadily increasing number of manuscripts of both the Qur'ân and the New Testament with confident allocation of dates by various palaeographers can obscure the fact that we do not have absolute secure dates for majority of the New Testament and Qur'ânic manuscripts.

In the case of Greek documentary papyri such as private letters or receipts, the dates are often present. Most of the New Testament manuscripts are written in a literary rather than a documentary hand. Therefore, it always needs a careful investigation of the evidence and involves comparing it with datable parallels to arrive at a reasonable dating. In the case of Qur'ânic manuscripts the dating is carried out by studying the nature of the script, papyrus, ornamentation and illumination. The palaeographers then date the manuscript to a particular century during which such characteristics were seen, a process similar to the one used in the dating of New Testament manuscripts.

The Qur'ânic manuscript becomes datable when there is a note on it either from the scribe or the waqf showing the date of its accession in a library or the production of the manuscript itself.

Keeping this in mind let us move over to the statement of the Christian missionaries. They say:

Aside from some of the manuscripts discovered in the loft of the Great Mosque in Sanaa in 1972, no manuscript fragment of the Qur'an can be dated earlier than first quarter of the 8th century A.D. - nearly 100 years after Muhammad. (Calligraphy and Islamic Culture, Annemarie Schimmel, 1984, p.4)

The statement of the missionaries give an impression that Muslims do not have a datable Qur'ânic manuscripts before first quarter of the eighth century. The quote from Schimmel's book when read in the context says:

The terminus ante quem for a fragment or a copy of the Koran can be established only when the piece has a waqf note, showing the date of its accession in a certain library. The earliest datable fragments go back to the first quarter of the eighth century...^[17]

Schimmel is saying that to firmly date a manuscript, we need something like a waqf note. She then mentions about the earliest datable manuscript that goes back to the first quarter of the eighth century. This manuscript is a very famous one and is located at the Egyptian National Library (was formerly at ^cAmr Mosque), dated 107 AH / 725 CE . Moritz has reproduced a large number of pages from this codex.^[18] Arnold and Grohmann assigns this specific date.^[19] The dating of this manuscript has been recently corroborated by Marilyn Jenkins of Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) by studying the ornamentation.^[20]

A folio of the manuscript is reproduced below.

Folios contains Sûrahs Yâ-Sîn, 72-83 and Al-Saffât, 1-14. It is written in mashq script, on vellum. No âya markers and no sûrah headings.

It is not true that the earliest datable manuscript goes back to the first quarter of the eighth century. The famous palaeographer Adolf Grohmann informs us that

one dated copy exists from the first century of Higra and two exists from the second, seven only from the third century of Higra.^[21]

The first century manuscript is dated 94 AH / 712-13 CE and is from Iran. The two second century Hijra copies, dating 102 AH / 720 CE and 107 AH / 725 CE are in Egyptian National Library, Cairo; the latter we have already discussed above.^[22]

A word of caution needs to be added. Whenever there is a waqf marking on the manuscripts, it is the burden of the paleographer to estimate the time between the writing of a manuscript and its being deposited in a mosque or any other religious institution. In other words, the wakf marking is not the true representative of the exact age of the manuscript. It only overestimates the date of writing of the manuscript.

No discussion about the dated manuscripts is finished without the mention of the status of New Testament manuscripts. We have no dated manuscripts of the New Testament until the Uspenski gospels of 835 CE.^[23] This is not very unusual, as literary documents were not customarily dated in antiquity. The first literary manuscript (Vindob. Med. Gr. 1) dated by the scribe is a text of Dioscorides from 512 CE now in Vienna.^[24]

In conclusion, we have seen that the script which came to know as Kûfic existed before the founding of city of Kûfah. It was this script which reached its fullness or perfection in the second half of the eighth century CE.

And Allah knows best!

 

References

[1] Abî al-^cAbbâs Ahmad al-Qalqashandî, Kitâb Subh al-A^csha, 1914, Volume III, Dâr al-Kutub al-Khadîwiyyah: Al-Qahirah, p. 15.

[2] Nabia Abbott, The Rise Of The North Arabic Script And Its Kur'ânic Development, 1939, University of Chicago Press, p. 17.

[3] S. M. Imamuddin, Arabic Writing And Arab Libraries, 1983, Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.: London, p. 12.

[4] B. Moritz, "Arabic Writing", Encyclopaedia Of Islam (Old Edition), 1913, E. J. Brill Publishers, Leyden & Luzac & Co. London, p. 387.

[5] Atiq Siddiqui, The Story Of Islamic Calligraphy, 1990, Sarita Books: Delhi, p. 9.

[6] Abdelkebir Khatibi & Mohammad Sijelmassi, The Splendor Of Islamic Calligraphy, 1994, Thames and Hudson, pp. 96-97.

[7] Nabia Abbott, The Rise Of The North Arabic Script And Its Kur'ânic Development, Op. Cit., p. 17.

[8] Yasin H. Safadi, Islamic Calligraphy, 1979, Shambhala Publications, Inc.: Boulder (Colorado), p. 11.

[9] Ibid., p. 10. See also a similar assertion on p. 42.

[10] Martin Lings, The Quranic Art Of Calligraphy And Illumination, 1976, World Of Islam Festival Trust, p. 16.

[11] Martin Lings & Yasin Hamid Safadi, The Qur'ân: Catalogue Of An Exhibition Of Quranic Manuscripts At The British Library, 1976, World of Islam Festival Publishing Company Ltd.: London, p. 12.

[12] Nabia Abbott, The Rise Of The North Arabic Script And Its Kur'ânic Development, Op. Cit., p. 21.

[13] H. M. El-Hawary, "The Most Ancient Islamic Monument Known Dated AH 31 (AD 652) From The Time Of The Third Calif ^cUthmân", Journal Of The Royal Asiatic Society, 1930, p. 327.

[14] Nabia Abbott, The Rise Of The North Arabic Script And Its Kur'ânic Development, Ibid., pp. 18-19.

[15] Anthony Welch, Calligraphy In The Arts Of The Muslim World, 1979, University Of Texas Press: Austin, pp. 44-45.

[16] Yasin H. Safadi, Islamic Calligraphy, Op. Cit., p. 11.

[17] Annemarie Schimmel, Calligraphy And Islamic Culture, 1984, New York University Press: New York & London, p. 4.

[18] B. Moritz, Arabic Palaeography: A Collection Of Arabic Texts From The First Century Of The Hidjra Till The Year 1000, 1905, Cairo, See Pl. 1-12.

[19] Thomas W. Arnold & Adolf Grohmann, The Islamic Book: A Contribution To Its Art And History From The VII-XVIII Century, 1929, The Pegasus Press, p. 22.

[20] Marilyn Jenkins, "A Vocabulary Of Ummayad Ornament", Masâhif San^câ', 1985, Dâr al-Athâr al-Islâmiyyah, pp. 23.

[21] Adolf Grohmann, "The Problem Of Dating Early Qur'âns", 1958, Der Islam, p. 216.

[22] Ibid., see foonote 17.

[23] Bruce M. Metzger, Manuscripts Of The Greek Bible: An Introduction To Greek Palaeography, 1981, Oxford University Press, p. 102, No. 26,

[24] R. Devreesse, Introduction à L'étude Des Manuscrits Grecs, 1954, Librairie C. Klincksieck: Paris, p. 288.